1) Recap

2) Nazi-Era Radio (Persuasion)

3) Contemporary Context

Key finding

Radio messages with anti-Tutsi diagnostic frames, pre-emptive violence prognostic frames caused more genocidal violence

Coordination Effects (for sure)

Stronger effects on collective violence

Non-linear "tipping point" in effect of radio

"Spill-over" effects from radio exposure of neighboring villages

Persuasion Effects (maybe)

Increases in individual violence?

Did exposure to the radio increase violence against Jews?

Examine two time periods:

• 1928-1932 (Moderate control over radio)
• 1933-1945 (Nazi control over radio)

How do they find effects?

1. Local variation in exposure to radio signals;

2. Change in content of radio

Nazi Voting

Increasing radio exposure with Moderate messages

\(\rightarrow\) fewer Nazi votes

Increasing radio exposure with Nazi messages

\(\rightarrow\) more Nazi Votes

Nazi Voting

Increasing radio exposure with Moderate messages

\(\rightarrow\) fewer Nazi votes

Increasing radio exposure with Nazi messages

\(\rightarrow\) more Nazi Votes

Antisemitic Behavior (1929-1934)

Increasing radio exposure with Moderate messages

\(\rightarrow\) less anti-Semitic violence/harassment

Increasing radio exposure with Nazi messages

\(\rightarrow\) more anti-Semitic violence/harassment

Antisemitic Behavior (Late 1930s)

Radio exposure with Nazi messages

\(\rightarrow\)

• more denunciations/deportations of Jews
• more open letters to anti-Semitic newspapers
• no effect on attacks on Synagogues

Persuasion or Coordination?

1. No effects on attacks on synagogues (more coordination required)

2. Exposure to radio caused more denunciations of Jews, open letters to Nazi newspapers (individual actions)

Persuasion or Coordination?

1. Effects of Nazi radio different in places with different histories of anti-Semitism

14th century pogroms against Jews predict Nazi-era violence, and

• Radio exposure increased anti-Semitism in places with medieval anti-Jewish pogroms
• Radio exposure decreased anti-Semitism in places without medieval anti-Jewish pogroms

Must be Persuasion and Dissuasion

persuasion: frames are resonant (consonant) and lead to violence, antisemitism

dissuasion: frames are opposite of resonant (dissonant), provoke a backlash

Serbian Radio in Croatia

Using local variation in radio exposure…

Croatian communities with Serbian nationalist Radio see:

• Increased vote for extremist Croatian parties
• Increased anti-Serb graffiti